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ITER - Wikipedia.CANDU reactor
One gram of deuterium-tritium fuel mixture in the process of nuclear fusion produces 90,kilowatt hours of energy, or the equivalent of 11 tonnes of coal. Nuclear fusion uses a different approach to traditional nuclear energy. Current nuclear power stations rely on nuclear fission with the nucleus of an atom being split to release energy. Nuclear fusion takes multiple nuclei and uses intense heat to fuse them together, a process that also releases energy.
Nuclear fusion has many potential attractions. The fuel is relatively abundant or can be produced in a fusion reactor. After preliminary tests with deuterium, ITER will use a mix of deuterium-tritium for its fusion because of the combination's high energy potential. The first isotope, deuterium , can be extracted from seawater , which means it is a nearly inexhaustible resource.
On 21 November , the seven project partners formally agreed to fund the creation of a nuclear fusion reactor. The reactor was expected to take 10 years to build and ITER had planned to test its first plasma in and achieve full fusion by , however the schedule is now to test first plasma in and full fusion in The best result achieved in a tokamak is 0. For commercial fusion power stations, engineering gain factor is important.
Engineering gain factor is defined as the ratio of a plant electrical power output to electrical power input of all plant's internal systems tokamak external heating systems, electromagnets, cryogenics plant, diagnostics and control systems, etc. Some nuclear engineers consider a Q of is required for commercial fusion power stations to be viable. ITER will not produce electricity. Producing electricity from thermal sources is a well known process used in many power stations and ITER will not run with significant fusion power output continuously.
Adding electricity production to ITER would raise the cost of the project and bring no value for experiments on the tokamak. One of the primary ITER objectives is to achieve a state of " burning plasma ". No fusion reactors had created a burning plasma until the competing NIF fusion project reached the milestone on 8 August The bigger a tokamak is, the more fusion reaction-produced energy is preserved for internal plasma heating and the less external heating is required , which also improves its Q-value.
This is how ITER plans for its tokamak reactor to scale. Preparations for the Gorbachev-Reagan summit showed that there were no tangible agreements in the works for the summit.
However, the ITER project was gaining momentum in political circles due to the quiet work being done by two physicists, the American scientist Alvin Trivelpiece who served as Director of the Office of Energy Research in the s and the Russian scientist Evgeny Velikhov who would become head of the Kurchatov Institute for nuclear research.
The two scientists both supported a project to construct a demonstration fusion reactor. At the time, magnetic fusion research was ongoing in Japan, Europe, the Soviet Union and the US, but Trivelpiece and Velikhov believed that taking the next step in fusion research would be beyond the budget of any of the key nations and that collaboration would be useful internationally. My response was 'great idea', but from my position, I have no capability of pushing that idea upward to the President.
This push for cooperation on nuclear fusion is cited as a key moment of science diplomacy , but nonetheless a major bureaucratic fight erupted in the US government over the project. One argument against collaboration was that the Soviets would use it to steal US technology and expertise. A second was symbolic and involved American criticism of how the Soviet physicist Andrei Sakharov was being treated.
Sakharov was an early proponent of the peaceful use of nuclear technology and along with Igor Tamm he developed the idea for the tokamak that is at the heart of nuclear fusion research. This led to nuclear fusion cooperation being discussed at the Geneva summit and release of a historic joint statement from Reagan and Gorbachev that emphasized, "the potential importance of the work aimed at utilizing controlled thermonuclear fusion for peaceful purposes and, in this connection, advocated the widest practicable development of international cooperation in obtaining this source of energy, which is essentially inexhaustible, for the benefit of all mankind.
As a result, collaboration on an international fusion experiment began to move forward. This meeting marked the launch of the conceptual design studies for the experimental reactors as well as the start of negotiations for operational issues such as the legal foundations for the peaceful use of fusion technology, the organizational structure and staffing, and the eventual location for the project. This meeting in Vienna was also where the project was baptized the International Thermonuclear Experimental Reactor, although it was quickly referred to by its abbreviation alone and its Latin meaning of 'the way'.
Conceptual and engineering design phases were carried out under the auspices of the IAEA. These issues were partly responsible for the United States temporarily exiting the project in before rejoining in There was a heated competition to host the ITER project with the candidates narrowed down to two possible sites: France and Japan.
In , Australia became the first non-member partner of the project. The ITER Council is responsible for the overall direction of the organization and decides such issues as the budget. There have been three directors-general so far: [77]. ITER's stated mission is to demonstrate the feasibility of fusion power as a large-scale, carbon-free source of energy.
The objectives of the ITER project are not limited to creating the nuclear fusion device but are much broader, including building necessary technical, organizational, and logistical capabilities, skills, tools, supply chains, and culture enabling management of such megaprojects among participating countries, bootstrapping their local nuclear fusion industries. From to the middle of the s, hundreds of fusion scientists and engineers in each participating country took part in a detailed assessment of the tokamak confinement system and the design possibilities for harnessing nuclear fusion energy.
The ITER project was initiated in Ground was broken in [88] and construction of the ITER tokamak complex started in Machine assembly was launched on 28 July When deuterium and tritium fuse, two nuclei come together to form a helium nucleus an alpha particle , and a high-energy neutron.
While nearly all stable isotopes lighter on the periodic table than iron and nickel , which have the highest binding energy per nucleon , will fuse with some other isotope and release energy, deuterium and tritium are by far the most attractive for energy generation as they require the lowest activation energy thus lowest temperature to do so, while producing among the most energy per unit weight.
All proto- and mid-life stars radiate enormous amounts of energy generated by fusion processes. Activation energies in most fusion systems this is the temperature required to initiate the reaction for fusion reactions are generally high because the protons in each nucleus will tend to strongly repel one another, as they each have the same positive charge.
In ITER, this distance of approach is made possible by high temperatures and magnetic confinement. ITER uses cooling equipment like a cryopump to cool the magnets to close to absolute zero.
Additional heating is applied using neutral beam injection which cross magnetic field lines without a net deflection and will not cause a large electromagnetic disruption and radio frequency RF or microwave heating. At such high temperatures, particles have a large kinetic energy , and hence velocity.
If unconfined, the particles will rapidly escape, taking the energy with them, cooling the plasma to the point where net energy is no longer produced. A successful reactor would need to contain the particles in a small enough volume for a long enough time for much of the plasma to fuse. A charged particle moving through a magnetic field experiences a force perpendicular to the direction of travel, resulting in centripetal acceleration , thereby confining it to move in a circle or helix around the lines of magnetic flux.
A solid confinement vessel is also needed, both to shield the magnets and other equipment from high temperatures and energetic photons and particles, and to maintain a near-vacuum for the plasma to populate.
The material must be designed to endure this environment so that a power station would be economical. Once fusion has begun, high-energy neutrons will radiate from the reactive regions of the plasma, crossing magnetic field lines easily due to charge neutrality see neutron flux. Since it is the neutrons that receive the majority of the energy, they will be ITER's primary source of energy output.
The inner wall of the containment vessel will have blanket modules that are designed to slow and absorb neutrons in a reliable and efficient manner and therefore protect the steel structure and the superconducting toroidal field magnets. Energy absorbed from the fast neutrons is extracted and passed into the primary coolant.
This heat energy would then be used to power an electricity-generating turbine in a real power station; in ITER this electricity generating system is not of scientific interest, so instead the heat will be extracted and disposed of. The vacuum vessel is the central part of the ITER machine: a double-walled steel container in which the plasma is contained by means of magnetic fields. The ITER vacuum vessel will be twice as large and 16 times as heavy as any previously manufactured fusion vessel: each of the nine torus -shaped sectors will weigh approximately tons for a total weight of tons.
When all the shielding and port structures are included, this adds up to a total of 5, tonnes. Its external diameter will measure Once assembled, the whole structure will be The primary function of the vacuum vessel is to provide a hermetically sealed plasma container. Its main components are the main vessel, the port structures and the supporting system. The main vessel is a double-walled structure with poloidal and toroidal stiffening ribs between millimetre-thick 2.
These ribs also form the flow passages for the cooling water. The space between the double walls will be filled with shield structures made of stainless steel. The inner surfaces of the vessel will act as the interface with breeder modules containing the breeder blanket component. These modules will provide shielding from the high-energy neutrons produced by the fusion reactions and some will also be used for tritium breeding concepts.
The vacuum vessel has a total of 44 openings that are known as ports — 18 upper, 17 equatorial, and 9 lower ports — that will be used for remote handling operations, diagnostic systems, neutral beam injections and vacuum pumping. Remote handling is made necessary by the radioactive interior of the reactor following a shutdown, which is caused by neutron bombardment during operation.
Vacuum pumping will be done before the start of fusion reactions to create the necessary low density environment, which is about one million times lower than the density of air. ITER will use a deuterium-tritium fuel, and while deuterium is abundant in nature, tritium is much rarer because it is a hydrogen isotope with a half-life of just This component, located adjacent to the vacuum vessel, serves to produce tritium through reaction with neutrons from the plasma. There are several reactions that produce tritium within the blanket.
ITER is based on magnetic confinement fusion that uses magnetic fields to contain the fusion fuel in plasma form. The magnet system used in the ITER tokamak will be the largest superconducting magnet system ever built. The 18 toroidal field coils will also use niobium-tin. They are the most powerful superconductive magnets ever designed with a nominal peak field strength of There will be three types of external heating in ITER: [].
The ITER cryostat is a large 3,tonne stainless steel structure surrounding the vacuum vessel and the superconducting magnets, with the purpose of providing a super-cool vacuum environment.
The divertor is a device within the tokamak that allows for removal of waste and impurities from the plasma while the reactor is operating. At ITER, the divertor will extract heat and ash that are created by the fusion process, while also protecting the surrounding walls and reducing plasma contamination.
The ITER divertor, which has been compared to a massive ashtray, is made of 54 pieces of stainless-steel parts that are known as cassettes. Each cassette weighs roughly eight tonnes and measures 0. The divertor design and construction is being overseen by the Fusion For Energy agency.
When the ITER tokamak is in operation, the plasma-facing units endure heat spikes as high as 20 megawatts per square metre, which is more than four times higher than what is experienced by a spacecraft entering Earth's atmosphere. This facility was created at the Efremov Institute in Saint Petersburg as part of the ITER Procurement Arrangement that spreads design and manufacturing across the project's member countries. The ITER tokamak will use interconnected cooling systems to manage the heat generated during operation.
Most of the heat will be removed by a primary water cooling loop, itself cooled by water from a secondary loop through a heat exchanger within the tokamak building's secondary confinement. This system will need to dissipate an average power of MW during the tokamak's operation. The liquid helium system will be designed, manufactured, installed and commissioned by Air Liquide in France. The process of selecting a location for ITER was long and drawn out.
Japan proposed a site in Rokkasho. From this point on, the choice was between France and Japan. At the final meeting in Moscow on 28 June , the participating parties agreed to construct ITER at Cadarache with Japan receiving a privileged partnership that included a Japanese director-general for the project and a financial package to construct facilities in Japan. Fusion for Energy , the EU agency in charge of the European contribution to the project, is located in Barcelona , Spain.
According to the agency's website:. F4E is responsible for providing Europe's contribution to ITER, the world's largest scientific partnership that aims to demonstrate fusion as a viable and sustainable source of energy.
Most of the buildings at ITER will or have been clad in an alternating pattern of reflective stainless steel and grey lacquered metal. This was done for aesthetic reasons to blend the buildings with their surrounding environment and to aid with thermal insulation.
In March , Switzerland, an associate member of Euratom since , also ratified the country's accession to the Fusion for Energy as a third country member. In , ITER announced a partnership with Australia for "technical cooperation in areas of mutual benefit and interest", but without Australia becoming a full member.
Thailand also has an official role in the project after a cooperation agreement was signed between the ITER Organization and the Thailand Institute of Nuclear Technology in The agreement provides courses and lectures to students and scientists in Thailand and facilitates relationships between Thailand and the ITER project.
Canada was previously a full member but pulled out due to a lack of funding from the federal government. Canada rejoined the project in via a cooperation agreement that focused on tritium and tritium-related equipment.
These agencies employ their own staff, have their own budget, and directly oversee all industrial contracts and subcontracting. The Chinese agency is working on components such as the correction coil, magnet supports, the first wall, and shield blanket. India's deliverables to the ITER project include the cryostat, in-vessel shielding, cooling and cooling water systems. The organization is based in Chiba , Japan.
Among the procurement items that ITER Korea is responsible for four sectors of the vacuum vessel, the blanket shield block, thermal shields, and the tritium storage and delivery system.
The panels are covered with beryllium plates soldered to Cu Cr Zr bronze, which is connected to a steel base. Panel size up to 2 m wide, 1. The obligation of the Russian Federation also includes conducting thermal tests of ITER components that are facing the plasma.
At the June conference in Moscow the participating members of the ITER cooperation agreed on the following division of funding contributions for the construction phase: The U. Department of Energy's Fusion Energy Sciences program. The closure of the budget required this financing plan to be revised, and the European Commission EC was forced to put forward an ITER budgetary resolution proposal in As a result, more than design or manufacturing contracts have been signed since the launch of the project.
In , the Chinese consortium led by China Nuclear Power Engineering Corporation signed a contract for machine assembly at ITER that was the biggest nuclear energy contract ever signed by a Chinese company in Europe. The ITER project has been criticized for issues such as its possible environmental impacts, its usefulness as a response to climate change, the design of its tokamak, and how the experiment's objectives have been expressed.
When France was announced as the site of the ITER project in , several European environmentalists stated their opposition to the project. In terms of the design of the tokamak, one concern arose from the tokamak parameters database interpolation that revealed the power load on a tokamak divertor would be five times the previously expected value.
Given that the projected power load on the ITER divertor will already be very high, these new findings led to new design testing initiatives. Another issue that critics raised regarding ITER and future deuterium-tritium DT fusion projects is the available supply of tritium.
As it stands, ITER will use all existing supplies of tritium for its experiment and the current state-of-the-art technology isn't sufficient to generate enough tritium to fulfill the needs of future DT fuel cycle experiments for fusion energy.
Proponents believe that much of the ITER criticism is misleading and inaccurate, in particular the allegations of the experiment's "inherent danger". The stated goals for a commercial fusion power station design are that the amount of radioactive waste produced should be hundreds of times less than that of a fission reactor, and that it should produce no long-lived radioactive waste, and that it is impossible for any such reactor to undergo a large-scale runaway chain reaction.
In the case of an accident or sabotage , it is expected that a fusion reactor would release far less radioactive pollution than would an ordinary fission nuclear station.
Furthermore, ITER's type of fusion power has little in common with nuclear weapons technology, and does not produce the fissile materials necessary for the construction of a weapon.
Proponents note that large-scale fusion power would be able to produce reliable electricity on demand, and with virtually zero pollution no gaseous CO 2 , SO 2 , or NO x by-products are produced.
According to researchers at a demonstration reactor in Japan, a fusion generator should be feasible in the s and no later than the s.
Japan is pursuing its own research program with several operational facilities that are exploring several fusion paths. Proponents of ITER contend that an investment in research now should be viewed as an attempt to earn a far greater future return and a study of the impact of ITER investments on the EU economy have concluded that 'in the medium and long-term, there is likely to be a positive return on investment from the EU commitment to ITER.
Supporters of ITER emphasize that the only way to test ideas for withstanding the intense neutron flux is to subject materials experimentally to that flux, which is one of the primary missions of ITER and the IFMIF, [] and both facilities will be vitally important to that effort. It is nearly impossible to acquire satisfactory data for the properties of materials expected to be subject to an intense neutron flux, and burning plasmas are expected to have quite different properties from externally heated plasmas.
Furthermore, the main line of research via tokamaks has been developed to the point that it is now possible to undertake the penultimate step in magnetic confinement plasma physics research with a self-sustained reaction.
Solar , wind , and hydroelectric power all have very low surface power density compared to ITER's successor DEMO which, at 2, MW, would have an energy density that exceeds even large fission power stations. Safety of the project is regulated according to French and EU nuclear power regulations.
In , the French Nuclear Safety Authority ASN delivered a favorable opinion, and then, based on the French Act on Nuclear Transparency and Safety, the licensing application was subject to public enquiry that allowed the general public to submit requests for information regarding safety of the project. The whole installation includes a number of stress tests to confirm efficiency of all barriers. The whole reactor building is built on top of almost seismic suspension columns and the whole complex is located almost m above sea level.
Overall, extremely rare events such as year flood of the nearby Durance river and 10,year earthquakes were assumed in the safety design of the complex and respective safeguards are part of the design.
Between and , the project has generated 34, job-years in the EU economy alone. Claessens, Michel. From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia. International nuclear fusion research and engineering megaproject. For the type of medieval circuit court, see Eyre legal term. For the computer science terminology, see Iterator. See also: Nuclear fusion. Nuclear technology portal Energy portal Science portal France portal. Vienna: International Atomic Energy Agency. Retrieved 12 September The Economist.
London, England. Retrieved 20 March Iter originally, "International Thermonuclear Experimental Reactor", but now rebranded as Latin, thus meaning "journey", "path" or "method" will be a giant fusion reactor of a type called a tokamak. Fusion for Energy. Retrieved 5 August ISBN Nuclear Fusion. Bibcode : NucFu.. ISSN Archived from the original on 26 April Bloomberg Businessweek.
Retrieved 25 November The New York Times. Archived from the original on 17 August Retrieved 18 August New York, USA. Nuclear Engineering International. London, England: Reuters. World Economic Forum. Physics Today. Popular Science. The Future of Fusion Energy. Singapore: World Scientific. S2CID Max Planck Institute for Plasma Physics. New Scientist.
Retrieved 13 September Uniquely among CANDU stations, Douglas Point had an oil-filled window with a view of the east reactor face, even when the reactor was operating.
Douglas Point was originally planned to be a two-unit station, but the second unit was cancelled because of the success of the larger MW e units at Pickering. The oil used has a higher boiling point than water, allowing the reactor to operate at higher temperatures and lower pressures than a conventional reactor. The higher temperatures also result in more efficient conversion to steam, and ultimately, electricity.
WR-1 operated successfully for many years and promised a significantly higher efficiency than water-cooled versions. Pickering A, consisting of Units 1 to 4, went into service in Pickering B with units 5 to 8 came online in , giving a full-station capacity of 4, MW e. The station is very close to the city of Toronto , in order to reduce transmission costs. A series of improvements to the basic Pickering design led to the CANDU 6 design, which first went into operation in the early s.
CANDU 6 was essentially a version of the Pickering power plant that was redesigned to be able to be built in single-reactor units. The economics of nuclear power plants generally scale well with size. This improvement at larger sizes is offset by the sudden appearance of large quantities of power on the grid, which leads to a lowering of electricity prices through supply and demand effects.
Predictions in the late s suggested that growth in electricity demand would overwhelm these downward pricing pressures, leading most designers to introduce plants in the MW e range. Pickering A was quickly followed by such an upscaling effort for the Bruce Nuclear Generating Station , constructed in stages between and It is the largest nuclear facility in North America and second largest in the world after Kashiwazaki-Kariwa in Japan , with eight reactors at around MW e each, in total 6, MW net and 7, MW gross.
Another, smaller, upscaling led to the Darlington Nuclear Generating Station design, similar to the Bruce plant, but delivering about MW e per reactor in a four-reactor station. Through the s and s the nuclear power market suffered a major crash, with few new plants being constructed in North America or Europe. Design work continued throughout, and new design concepts were introduced that dramatically improved safety, capital costs, economics and overall performance.
The main change, and the most radical among the CANDU generations, is the use of pressurized light water as the coolant.
This significantly reduces the cost of implementing the primary cooling loop, which no longer has to be filled with expensive heavy water. It also eliminates tritium production in the coolant loop, the major source of tritium leaks in operational CANDU designs.
The main reason for this is to increase the burn-up ratio, allowing bundles to remain in the reactor longer, so that only a third as much spent fuel is produced. This also has effects on operational costs and timetables, as the refuelling frequency is reduced.
Outside of the reactor, the ACR has a number of design changes that are expected to dramatically lower capital and operational costs.
Primary among these changes is the design lifetime of 60 years, which dramatically lowers the price of the electricity generated over the lifetime of the plant. Higher-pressure steam generators and turbines improve efficiency downstream of the reactor. The reactors are designed with a lifetime of over 50 years, with a mid-life program to replace some of the key components e. Improvements to construction techniques including modular, open-top assembly decrease construction costs.
The system was developed almost entirely in Ontario, and only two experimental designs were built in other provinces. Of these 22, a number of reactors have been removed from service.
Two new CANDU reactors have been proposed for Darlington with Canadian government help with financing, [49] but these plans ended in due to high costs. To date, only two non-experimental reactors have been built in other provinces, one each in Quebec and New Brunswick, other provinces have concentrated on hydro and coal-fired plants. Several Canadian provinces have developed large amounts of hydro power. Alberta and Saskatchewan do not have extensive hydro resources, and use mainly fossil fuels to generate electric power.
Interest has been expressed in Western Canada , where CANDU reactors are being considered as heat and electricity sources for the energy-intensive oil sands extraction process, which currently uses natural gas.
Energy Alberta Corporation announced 27 August that they had applied for a licence to build a new nuclear plant at Lac Cardinal 30 km west of the town of Peace River, Alberta , with two ACR reactors going online in producing 2.
During the s, the international nuclear sales market was extremely competitive, with many national nuclear companies being supported by their governments' foreign embassies. In addition, the pace of construction in the United States had meant that cost overruns and delayed completion was generally over, and subsequent reactors would be cheaper. Canada, a relatively new player on the international market, had numerous disadvantages in these efforts.
The CANDU was deliberately designed to reduce the need for very large machined parts, making it suitable for construction by countries without a major industrial base. Sales efforts have had their most success in countries that could not locally build designs from other firms. In , an agreement was signed for export of a MWe power reactor based on the Douglas Point reactor.
The success of the deal led to the sale of a second reactor of the same design. A serious problem with cracking of the reactor's end shield led to the reactor being shut down for long periods, and the reactor was finally downrated to MW. Part of the sales agreement was a technology transfer process. High inflation during construction led to massive losses, and efforts to re-negotiate the deal were interrupted by the March coup led by General Videla.
Economic troubles in the country worsened throughout the construction phase. Construction started in and commercial operation began in April In December a further deal was announced for three additional units at the same site, which began operation in the period — Commercial operation began in December and July , respectively.
These are the first heavy water reactors in China. Qinshan is the first CANDU-6 project to use open-top reactor building construction, and the first project where commercial operation began earlier than the projected date. Construction is planned to start in at Atucha. The cost of electricity from any power plant can be calculated by roughly the same selection of factors: capital costs for construction or the payments on loans made to secure that capital, the cost of fuel on a per-watt-hour basis, and fixed and variable maintenance fees.
In the case of nuclear power, one normally includes two additional costs, the cost of permanent waste disposal, and the cost of decommissioning the plant when its useful lifetime is over.
Generally, the capital costs dominate the price of nuclear power, as the amount of power produced is so large that it overwhelms the cost of fuel and maintenance. In the s, the pressure tubes in the Pickering A reactors were replaced ahead of design life due to unexpected deterioration caused by hydrogen embrittlement. Extensive inspection and maintenance has avoided this problem in later reactors.
All the Pickering A and Bruce A reactors were shut down in in order to focus on restoring operational performance in the later generations at Pickering, Bruce, and Darlington. The original cost and time estimates based on inadequate project scope development were greatly below the actual time and cost and it was determined that Pickering units 2 and 3 would not be restarted for commercial reasons. This debt is slowly paid down through a variety of sources, including a 0. Darlington is currently [ when?
In , Bruce A units 3 and 4 had capacity factors of After India detonated a nuclear bomb in , Canada stopped nuclear dealings with India. The breakdown is:. From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia.
Canadian heavy water nuclear reactor design. Fuel bundle Calandria reactor core Adjuster rods Pressurizer Steam generator Light-water pump Heavy-water pump Fueling machines Heavy-water moderator Pressure tube Steam going to steam turbine Cold water returning from turbine Containment building made of reinforced concrete.
Further information: nuclear reactor physics , nuclear fission , and heavy water. Main article: Nuclear proliferation. Energy portal Nuclear technology portal. Retrieved 25 September Retrieved 4 March SNC Lavalin. Archived from the original PDF on 6 March Retrieved 14 November Cooling water systems for all CANDU reactor cooling requirements can operate at either saltwater or fresh water sites.
The plant can also accommodate conventional cooling towers. A generic set of reference conditions has been developed to suit potential sites for the EC6. Bain; Frederic C.
Boyd; Eugene Critoph; Maurice F. Duret; T. Alexander Eastwood; Charles E. Ells; Ralph E. Green; Geoffrey C. Hanna; Robert G. Hart; Donald G. Hurst; Arthur M. Marko; J. Douglas Milton; David K. Myers; Howard K. Rae; J. Archie Robertson; Benard Ullyett McGill-Queen's University Press. ISBN JSTOR j. Jeremy Whitlock. Retrieved 5 March Archived from the original on 1 November Atomic Energy of Canada Ltd.
Fundamentals of Nuclear Reactor Physics 1 ed. Academic Press. The Don Jones Articles. Retrieved 18 January Robertson Retrieved 17 April Retrieved on 29 March The American Journal of International Law. American Society of International Law. JSTOR S2CID Archived from the original on 8 September Retrieved 1 June Bulletin of the Atomic Scientists. Bibcode : BuAtS.. Fusion Development Paths Workshop. Los Alamos National Laboratory.
Archived from the original PDF on 20 May Retrieved 22 July Retrieved 1 December Richard V. Archived from the original on 17 May Archived from the original on 19 March Canadian Broadcasting Corporation. Retrieved 4 October Retrieved 10 August Toronto Star. Edmonton Examiner. Archived from the original on 25 November Retrieved 24 November World Nuclear News.
Retrieved 19 May World Nuclear Association. Walrus Magazine. Nuclear power in Canada. Bruce Darlington Pickering Point Lepreau. Anti-nuclear movement in Canada Campaign for Nuclear Phaseout. Types of nuclear fission reactor.
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